Key experiments, theories, and figures in psychology
20 cards · science
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| Front | Back |
|---|---|
| Classical conditioning | Learning via pairing a neutral with an unconditioned stimulus Pavlov showed dogs salivated to a bell after pairing with food. |
| Operant conditioning | Behavior shaped by consequences of reinforcement and punishment Skinner demonstrated control of response rates with reinforcement schedules. |
| Little Albert | Conditioned an infant to fear a white rat using loud noise Watson and Rayner’s methods and the child’s identity are disputed; unethical by today’s standards. |
| Asch conformity | Individuals often align judgments with a unanimous group About 75% conformed at least once; effect varies by context and has mixed replications. |
| Milgram experiment | Many obeyed orders to deliver apparently dangerous shocks About 65% reached maximum voltage; partial replications show similar trends with nuances. |
| Stanford prison experiment | Simulated prison roles escalated into abusive behavior Procedures and demand characteristics criticized; findings failed to replicate cleanly. |
| Bystander effect | More bystanders can mean less likelihood of helping Darley and Latané’s effect appears smaller and context-dependent in modern analyses. |
| Robbers Cave | Rival groups reduced conflict via shared superordinate goals Sherif’s camp study supports realistic conflict theory on intergroup relations. |
| Harlow rhesus monkeys | Infants preferred cloth comfort to a wire food source Contact comfort proved central to attachment; methods drew major ethical criticism. |
| Strange Situation | Structured observation classifying infant attachment styles Ainsworth identified secure, avoidant, ambivalent; distributions vary across cultures. |
| Marshmallow test | Delayed gratification weakly predicts later outcomes when controls added Effects shrink when socioeconomic and environmental factors are controlled. |
| Misinformation effect | Post-event information distorts memory of the original event Loftus and Palmer showed leading questions altered car-speed estimates. |
| Stroop effect | Automatic word reading interferes with color naming A robust index of selective attention and inhibition across many settings. |
| Working memory capacity | About four chunks under typical conditions Later work (e.g., Cowan) revises Miller’s 7±2 to roughly four chunks. |
| Cognitive dissonance | Discomfort from inconsistency motivates attitude change Festinger and Carlsmith found $1 induced more liking than $20 due to dissonance. |
| Hierarchy of needs | Needs prioritized from physiological to self-actualization Iconic pyramid with mixed empirical support and cultural caveats. |
| Big Five | Five broad dimensions capture much personality variation OCEAN traits show cross-cultural presence and relative stability. |
| Psychoanalysis | Theory and therapy centered on unconscious conflict Historically pivotal; many claims lack falsifiability and strong empirical support. |
| Cognitive behavioral therapy | Time-limited, structured treatment targeting thoughts and behaviors Evidence-based for depression and anxiety; teaches skills to prevent relapse. |
| Learned helplessness | Uncontrollable aversive events produce passive behavior later Reformulated to emphasize attributional style; animal studies raised ethical issues. |